Jumamosi, 8 Oktoba 2016

Commission of Human Rights and Good Governance

The Commission for Human Rights and Good Governance (CHRAGG) is an independent government department. It was established as the national focal point for the promotion and protection of human rights and good governance in Tanzania. CHRAGG was established under Article 129(1) of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania of 1977 as amended by Act No. 3 of 2000.

CHRAGG has the mission to independently promote and protect all human rights, duties and principles of administrative justice in order to enhance democracy, rule of law and good governance. Its core values are independency, integrity, teamwork, transparency and accountability, excellency and confidentiality.

CHRAGG is mandated:

To promote the protection and preservation of all human rights and duties to society in accordance with the Constitution and the laws of the land.
To receive allegations and complaints regarding violation of human rights.
To conduct enquiries into matters involving the violation of human rights and the contravention of the principles of administrative justice.
To conduct research into human rights, administrative justice and good governance issues and to educate the public about such issues.
When necessary, to institute the proceedings in court designed to terminate activities involving the violation of human rights or redress the right or rights so violated, or the contravention of the principles administrative justice.
To visit prisons and places of detention or related facilities with a view to assessing and inspecting conditions of the persons held in such places and to make recommendations to redress existing problems.
To advise the government and other public organs and private sector institutions on issues relating to human rights and administrative justice.
To make recommendations relating to existing or proposed legislation, regulation or administrative provisions to ensure compliance with human rights norms and standards and the principles of good governance.
To promote the ratification and accession to treaties or conventions on human rights, to which the country is a party and seek harmonization of national legislation as well as monitor compliance with international human rights standards.
To co-operate with international and regional and other national agencies and institutions competent in the areas of protection and promotion of human rights and administrative justice.

FOR MORE INFORMATION FOLLOW THE FOLLOWING LINK

http://www.chragg.go.tz/

NATIONAL ELECTORAL COMMISSION

Political System in Tanzania

Tanzania is a democratic Country which adheres to Multi-Party Democracy. Multi-
Partism existed before independence and briefly thereafter. In Tanganyika (Mainland
Tanzania), there were 3 main Political Parties including Tanganyika African National
Union (TANU), United Tanganyika Party (UTP) and African National Congress (ANC)
which participated in the General Elections before independence. On the other hand,
Tanzania Zanzibar also had 4 Political Parties which are Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP),
Zanzibar and Pemba People‟s Party (ZPPP), UMMA Party and Zanzibar Nationalist
Party (ZNP), which participated in the General Elections conducted in the Isles before
1964.

In 1965, the Multi-Party System was officially abolished. Tanzania decided to follow a
Single-Party System, where, Mainland Tanzania remained with one Political Party
which was TANU and Tanzania Zanzibar remained with ASP. In 1977, TANU and ASP
united to form one Political Party, namely Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM).
In 1992, Multi-Partism was re-introduced in Tanzania. Since its re-introduction, five
General Elections have been conducted. The elections were conducted in 1995,
2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015, where various Political Parties participated in those
Elections.
The registration of Political Parties in Tanzania is governed by the Political Parties
Act, Cap. 258. The Act creates the office of the Registrar of Political Parties which
has the mandate of registering; monitoring and evaluating the performance and
conduct of all Political Parties in Tanzania.
In the 2015 General Election, 22 fully registered Political Parties participated as
shown in Annex 1.

The Electoral Systems in Tanzania

Article 21 of the Constitution of The United Republic of Tanzania, 1977, articulates
the right of every Citizen to take part in matters pertaining to the governance
of the country, either by electing or being elected. Every Tanzanian aged 18 years
and above, has the right to vote and elect the leaders of his or her own choice.
However, in order for a person to be elected for Councillors and Parliamentary posts,
he/she must be 21 years old and for Presidential Post, not less than 40 years.
In Tanzania the applicable electoral system is First-Past-the-Post, whereby a
candidate who obtains a higher number of valid votes compared to any other
Candidate is declared as the Winner. This is in accordance with Sections 35 F (8) and
80(1) of the National Elections Act, Cap 343. However, Proportional Representation
is used to obtain Members of Parliament and Councillors Women Special Seats
Article 66 (1) of the Constitution of The United Republic of Tanzania, 1977, provides
6 categories of Members of Parliament.
Apart from Elected Members of Parliament and Women Special Seats, there are also
five members elected by the Zanzibar House of Representatives from among its
members, the Attorney General, the Speaker of the National Assembly (if he/she is
not elected from amongst the elected members of the Parliament) and not more
than ten members appointed by the President.
Councillors‟ Women Special Seats are obtained depending on the proportional
number of Wards won by each Political Party in any given Council. This is in
accordance with Section 35 of the Local Government (District Authorities) Act, Cap.
287 and Section 19 of the Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act, Cap. 288.

The Electoral Cycle in Tanzania

The Presidential, Parliamentary and Councillors‟ Elections are conducted every 5
years. This is as provided by Article 65 of the Constitution of the United Republic of
Tanzania of 1977.

As it is in other countries, Tanzania manages the Election Process that is in
conformity with the Electoral Cycle which divides the Election activities into three
phases. The Election phases are Pre-Election, During Election and Post-Election.
Therefore, the Commission has effectively implemented the Election Process by
adhering to the Election Phases as follows:

(a) Pre - Election
Activities implemented during the Pre-Election Phase include the following:
(i) Budgeting;
(ii) Review and Demarcation of Constituency boundaries;
(iii) Registration of Voters;
(iv) Purchase of Election Equipment and Materials;
(v) Preparation of Election Calendar and Action Plan;
(vi) Amendment of Electoral Laws and Guidelines for Election Officials and
Stakeholders;
(vii) Provision of Voters‟ Education; and
(viii) Accreditation of Election Observers.

(b) During Election
During this phase, NEC implemented the following activities:
(i) Nomination of Candidates;
(ii) Co-ordination of Election Campaigns;
(iii) Overseeing performance of the Election Ethical Committees;
(iv) Training of Election Officials;
(v) Printing and distribution of Ballot Papers;
(vi) Distribution of Election Equipment and Materials;
(vii) Casting of Votes;
(viii) Counting of Votes; and
(ix) Declaration of Election Results.

(c) The Post-Election Phase
During this Phase, NEC implements the following activities:
(i) Post-Election Evaluation;
(ii) Dealing with Election Petitions;
(iii) Preparation of General Election Report;
(iv) Amendment of Electoral Laws;
(v) Review and Updating of Voters Register;
(vi) Review and Updating of Election Systems;
(vii) Review and Updating NEC organisation Structure;
(viii) Performance (Financial and Value for Money) Audits of the General Election
processes ;
(ix) Review NEC Strategic Plan; and
(x) Preparation of Action Plan for the next General Election.

The National Electoral Commission
The National Electoral Commission (NEC) was established on 13th January, 1993,
following the re-introduction of Multi-Party System in 1992. According to Article
74(1) of the Constitution of The United Republic of Tanzania, 1977, the Commission
is headed by a Chairperson, and consists of Members who are all appointed by the
President of the United Republic of Tanzania.
The first Chairperson of the Commission was the late Hon. Justice (Rtd.) Lewis M.
Makame, who chaired the Commission from 13th January, 1993 to 14th June,
2011.The current Chairperson, Hon. Justice (Rtd.) Damian Z. Lubuva has been
serving the Commission from 19th December, 2011 to date. The Commission is
mandated to coordinate and supervise the Presidential and Parliamentary Elections
of United Republic of Tanzania and Councillors‟ Elections in Mainland Tanzania.
The Commission is an autonomous department. This is in accordance with Article
74(7) of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania, 1977. Article 74(11) of
the Constitution provides that, in discharging its functions, the Commission shall not
be obliged to comply with orders or directives of any person or any Government
department or the views of any Political Party. Furthermore, no court shall havepowers to inquire into anything done by the Commission in the discharge of its
functions in view of Article 74(12) of the Constitution.

Organization Structure of the National Electoral Commission
The National Electoral Commission comprises of 7 members who are appointed by
the President. The Chairperson and Vice Chairperson must be appointed from
persons who are Judges of the High Court or Court of Appeal of Tanzania or persons
qualified to be appointed as a Judge of the High Court or Justice of the Court of
Appeal. During appointment, the President takes into account the principle that,
where the Chairperson hails from one part of the Union, the Vice-Chairperson shall
be a person who hails from the other part of the Union. This is in accordance with
Article 74 (1) and (2) of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania of 1977
and Section 4(1) of the National Elections Act, Cap 343.
Furthermore, one member of the Commission is appointed from amongst the
members of the Tanganyika Law Society (TLS). The remaining four members are
appointed from amongst persons possessing adequate experience in the conduct or
supervision of Parliamentary elections or such other qualifications as the President of
the United Republic of Tanzania may consider necessary for the effective discharge
of the functions of the Commission. Currently, NEC has seven members as illustrated
in Table 1.

Table 1:
Members of the National Electoral Commission

Name Position
1 Hon. Justice (Rtd.) Damian Z. Lubuva Chairperson
2 Hon. Chief Justice (Rtd. Zanzibar) Hamid M. Hamid Vice Chairperson
3 Hon. Prof. Amon E. Chaligha Member
4 Hon. Mchanga H. Mjaka Member
5 Hon. Judge (Rtd.) John J. Mkwawa Member
6 Hon. Judge (Rtd.) Mary H.C.S Longway Member
7 Hon. Asina A. Omari Member

The tenure of Members of the Commission is five years. However, the President can
re-appoint the Commissioners to serve for further terms.
In carrying out its functions, the Commission is assisted by a Secretariat which is
headed by the Director of Elections who is the Chief Executive Officer and the
Secretary to the Commission. Currently, the Director of Elections is Mr. Kailima R. Kombwey.

NEC has five departments and four Units headed by Deputy Secretaries and
Departmental Directors as follows:

(i) Department of Administration and Human Resources Management;
(ii) Department of Planning;
(iii) Department of Permanent National Voters Register;
(iv) Department of Election Management;
(v) Department of Voters Education and Information;
(vi) Finance and Accounts Unit;
(vii) Internal Audit Unit;
(viii) Legal Services Unit; and
(ix) Procurement Management and Logistics Unit.

Vision and Mission

In carrying out its mandate and functions, NEC is guided by set Vision and Mission
geared towards effective and efficient implementation of its Strategic Objectives and
Targets.

Vision
To be an independent Electoral Management Body delivering free, fair and credible
elections in the United Republic of Tanzania.

Mission
To supervise and co-ordinate the conduct of Presidential and Parliamentary Elections
in the United Republic of Tanzania; Councillors‟ Elections in Mainland Tanzania and
perform any other mandated functions in collaboration with all Stakeholders to
contribute to the democracy, good governance and sustainable socio-economic
development.

The Functions of the National Electoral Commission
According to Article 74 (6) and 78 of the Constitution of the United Republic of
Tanzania of 1977, the functions of NEC are:-

(i) To supervise and co-ordinate the registration of Voters in
Presidential and Parliamentary elections in the United Republic;
(ii) To supervise and co-ordinate the conduct of the Presidential and
Parliamentary Elections;

(iii) To review the boundaries and demarcate the United Republic into
various areas for the purposes of Parliamentary Elections;

(iv) To supervise and co-ordinate the registration of Voters and the conduct
of the Election of Councillors; and

(v) To perform any other functions in accordance with a law enacted by
Parliament.

Other functions of the Commission in accordance with the National Elections Act, Cap
343, and the Local Authorities (Elections) Act, Cap 292, are as follows:-

(i) Provision of voters‟ education, co-ordination and supervision of institutions
and other Stakeholders dealing with provision of Voters‟ Education; and

(ii) Nominate and announce Members of Women Parliamentary Special Seats and
Councillors for Women Special Seats.

ELECTION PREPARATIONS

Cost for Voters Registration and the General Election
The Commission spent the sum of Tshs. 534,499,415,599.00 for updating the
Permanent National Voters‟ Register (PNVR) and cordination, supervision and
conduct of 2015 General Election. The Commission also spent Tshs.
1,523,886,833.00 from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
as part of Development Partners‟ contribution for the 2015 General Election.

Cost for Updating the Permanent National Voters’ Register
The Commission received a total of Tshs. 260,865,285,227.00 for updating the
PNVR out of the requested budget of Tshs. 330,290,786,381.40. The funds
were used to procure BVR Kits, training of Registration Officials and carrying
out the registration activity.

Procurement of Equipment and Materials for Updating the
PNVR
The process of procuring equipment and materials for updating of the PNVR
was conducted by the Commission in accordance with the Public Procurement
Act No.7 of 2011 and its Regulations of 2013. Other equipment and materials
were procured by Development Partners through the UNDP.
Equipment and materials procured for updating the PNVR included; 8,000 BVR
Kits, various publications and forms used in updating of the PNVR, software,
stationery, packing boxes, T-shirts, polo caps, bags, printers, GIS Hardware,
GPS Handsets, servers and toners.
The UNDP through the Democratic Empowerment Project (DEP) supported the
Commission by supplying various equipment and Materials for updating the PNVR and upgrading of Application Systems such as the Warehouse
Management System as well as Publication of brochures for Voters‟ Education.

Operating Cost for the 2015 General Election
The Commission estimated to spend Tshs. 273,648,993,370.00, for the 2015
General Election. The budget included cost of; printing of Sample Ballot Papers
and Ballot Papers, training of Election Officials, logistics, Electoral Officials
remuneration, preparation of polling stations, Voters‟ Education Programs,
printing and procurement of election materials, Post Election Evaluation,
preparation and printing of the 2015 General Election report and Election
Petitions. The Budget also included funds for setting up the National Results
Centre for receiving and declaring of the Presidential results.
As of October, 2015, a total sum of Tshs. 273,634,130,372.00 equivalent to
99.99% of the requested funds were already disbursed.

Procurement of Materials for the 2015 General Election
The Commission verified equipment and materials prior to the 2015 General
Election so as to identify actual needs of equipment and materials in all
Councils. The verification involved Election equipment and materials which
were used in the 2010 General Election such as Ballot Boxes, emergency
lanterns and rubber stamps. The verification indicated that, there were
shortages of some equipment and materials.
After the assessment and verification, the Commission procured equipment and
materials for the Election in accordance with the Public Procurement Act of
2011 and its 2013 Regulations. The equipment and materials procured included
polling booths tamper proof envelopes, indelible ink, emergency lanterns and
batteries, observers‟ bags, T-shirts, polo caps and ballot boxes.

Printing of Election Documents
The Commission published various Election documents used in the 2015
General Election. The published documents were the PNVR, voters‟ list,
multiple forms, legal documents, sample ballot papers, ballot papers, tactile
ballot folders, results forms, posters, billboards for voters‟ education, guiding
banners, posters for Polling Stations and stickers.

The Development Partners’ Contribution
The Development Partners, contributed Tshs. 1,523,886,833.00 through UNDP
to facilitate the process of updating the PNVR, renovation of Data Processing
Centre, publication of the Election Code of Conduct, Guidelines for Election
Observers, outreach programs and the production of Voters‟ Registration
awareness posters for Dar es Salaam Region.
Furthermore, the UNDP provided some equipment and materials for election
activities. The Commission received 7 projectors to facilitate training programs
for Election Officials, 6 computers for the Elections Information Centre, 171
computers and printers for the registration of Candidates, tallying centre and the declaration of results in all Councils. Moreover, UNDP facilitated the Commission in providing materials and equipment for the National Results
Centre, Call Centre and Observers‟ registration centre.

The General Election Timetable
The Commission prepared a Timetable for the General Election focusing on the
nomination day as provided under Section 37 (1) (a) of the National Elections
Act, Cap 343. The legislation requires the Commission to appoint the
Nomination Day not less than 5 days and not more than 25 days, after the
dissolution of the Parliament.
According to Article 65 of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania,
the Parliament was officially dissolved on 15th August, 2015. Following the
dissolution of the Parliament and as provided under section 37 (1) (a) of the
National Elections Act, Cap. 343, timetable for the 2015 General Election

Amendments of Laws and other Election Documents
The Post-Election Assessment which was conducted after the 2010 General
Election revealed the need to review the Electoral Laws, Regulations, Electoral
Code of Conduct and Guidelines for Election Officials and Election Stakeholders.
2.3.1 The Electoral Laws

In the course of improving the existing Electoral Laws, the Commission
recommended the amendment in the following areas:-
(i) Election Day should not fall on any day of worship and should be
officially declared as a Public Holiday;

(ii) Repeal of the provision which allows house to house campaigning;

(iii) Political Parties should appoint Agents from their respective Wards or
Constituencies;

(iv) Press should be allowed into Polling Stations;

(v) Setting a specific time for declaring Election Results;

(vi) A person who is capable of depositing security for costs in an Election
Petition should be allowed to do so without an application to the Court;

(vii) Striking out the Election Petitions where the Petitioner fails to pay
security for costs;

(viii) Extension of time for the hearing of the Parliamentary Election Petitions
in the High Court; and

(ix) To amend the provision which requires the Commission to postpone
Elections in the event of death of the Running Mate.

Ijumaa, 30 Septemba 2016

PA; BUREAUCRACY

Weber’s Bureaucracy: Definition, Features, Benefits, Disadvantages and Problems

Article shared by Smriti Chand

Weber’s Bureaucracy: Definition, Features, Benefits, Disadvantages and Problems!

It was Max Webber who propounded the bureaucratic theory of organisation and management.

The term ‘bureaucracy’ has been widely used with invidious connotations directed at government and business. Bureaucracy is an administrative system designed to accomplish large-scale administrative tasks by systematically coordinating the work of many individuals. Weber has observed three types of power in organisations: traditional, charismatic and rational-legal or bureaucratic. He has emphasised that bureaucratic type of power is the ideal one.

Features (Characteristics) Of Weber’s Bureaucracy:

Weber has given a number of features of bureaucracy. Accordingly, following features suggest the characteristics of bureaucratic organisations.

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1. Administrative Class:

Bureaucratic organisations generally have administrative class responsible for maintaining coordinative activities of the members.

Main features of his class are as follows:

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(i) People are paid and are whole time employees,

(ii) They receive salary and other perquisites normally based on their positions,

(iii) Their tenure in the organisation is determined by the rules and regulations of the organisation,

(iv) They do not have any proprietary interest in the organisation,

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(v) They are selected for the purpose of employment based on their competence.

2. Hierarchy:

The basic feature of bureaucratic organisation is that there is hierarchy of positions in the organisation. Hierarchy is a system of ranking various positions in descending scale from top to bottom of the organisation. In bureaucratic organisation, offices also follow the principle of hierarchy that is each lower office is subject to control and supervision by higher office.

Thus, no office is left uncontrolled in the organisation. This is the fundamental concept of hierarchy in bureaucratic organisation. This hierarchy serves as lines of communication and delegation of authority. It implies that communication coming down or going up must pass through each position.

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Similarly, a subordinate will get authority from his immediate superior. However, this hierarchy is net unitary but sub-pyramids of officials within the large organisation corresponding etc. functional divisions exist.

Thus, there are offices with the same amount of authority but with different kinds of functions operating in different areas of competence. For example, the Government organisations, we can observe separate offices looking after particular functions. This happens in business organisations too.

3. Division of Work:

Work of the organisation is divided on the basis of specialisation to take the advantages of division of labour. Each office in the bureaucratic organisation has specific sphere of competence.

This involves:

(i) a sphere of obligations to perform functions which has been marked off as part of a systematic division of labour;

(ii) the provision of the incumbent with necessary authority to carry out these functions; and

(iii) the necessary means of compulsion are clearly defined and their use is subject to definite conditions.

Thus, division of labour try to ensure that each office has a clearly-defined area of competence within the organisation and each official knows the areas in which he operates and the areas in which he must abstain from action so that he does not overstep the boundary between his role and those of others. Further, division of labour also tries to ensure that no work is left uncovered.

4. Official Rules:

A basic and most emphasised feature of bureaucratic organisation is that administrative process is continuous and governed by official rules. Bureaucratic organisation is the antithesis of ad hoc, temporary, and temporary and unstable relations. A rational approach to organisation calls for a system of maintaining rules to ensure twin requirements of uniformity and coordination of efforts by individual members in the organisation.

These rules are more or less stable and more or less exhaustive. When there is no rule on any aspect of organisational operation, the matter is referred upward for decision which subsequently becomes precedent for future decision on the similar matter. Rules provide the benefits of stability, continuity, and predictability and each official knows precisely the outcome of his behaviour in a particular matter.

5. Impersonal Relationships:

A notable feature of bureaucracy is that relationships among individuals are governed through the system of official authority and rules. Official positions are free from personal involvement, emotions and sentiments. Thus, decisions are governed by rational factors rather than personal factors. This impersonality concept is used in dealing with organisational relations as well as relations between the organisation and outsiders.

6. Official Record:

Bureaucratic organisation is characterised by maintenance of proper official records. The decisions and activities of the organisation are formally recorded and preserved for future reference. This is made possible by extensive use of filling system in the organisation. An official record is almost regarded as encyclopedia of various activities performed by the people in the organisation.

Benefits of Bureaucracy:

The following are the advantages of Bureaucracy:

1. The rules and procedures are decided for every work it leads to, consistency in employee behaviour. Since employees are bound to follow the rules etc., the management process becomes easy.

2. The duties and responsibilities of each job are clearly defined there is no question of overlapping or conflicting job duties.

3. The selection process and promotion procedures are based on merit and expertise. It assists in putting right persons on right jobs. There is optimum utilisation of human resources.

4. The division of labour assists workers in becoming experts in their jobs. The performance of employees improves considerably.

5. The enterprise does not suffer when some persons leave it. If one person leaves then some other occupies that place and the work does not suffer.

Disadvantages of Bureaucracy:

The following are the disadvantages of Bureaucracy:

1. This system suffers from too much of red tape and paper work.

2. The employees do not develop belongingness to the organisation.

3. The excessive reliance on rules and regulations and adherence to these policies inhibit initiative and growth of the employees. They are treated like machines and not like individuals. There is neglect of human factor.

4. The employees become so used to the system, they resist to any change and introduction of new techniques of operations.

Evaluation:

Weber’s model will be performed in those enterprises where change is not anticipated. Big business houses and government departments use this type of organisation. Weber is credited for attempting to develop Bureaucratic model for the first time.

Weber’s model has some drawbacks. It has rigidity, impersonality, excessive cost of control, excessive dependence on superiors, tendency to ignore organisational goals. Inspite of these limitations this model is very useful in large enterprises.

Problems in Bureaucracy:

Bureaucracy organisation has been considered once superior than ad hoc or temporary structure. It has been termed as rational and ideal leading to efficiency. The efficiency in bureaucratic organisation comes through rationality and predictability of behaviour because everyone knows the consequence of his action become actually the action is undertaken.

However, bureaucracy has been criticised because of its inefficiency and has been termed as a symbol of inefficiency. There are many dis-functional aspects of bureaucracy which is referred to as bureau pathology.

Looking into the needs of modern organisations, bureaucracy has many shortcomings and is, therefore, not suitable. The major problems of bureaucracy are because of the following factors: invalidity of bureaucracy assumptions, goal displacement united consequences, in human and closers-system perspective.

Invalidity of Bureaucratic Assumptions:

In fact, the source of bureau pathology lies in the invalidity of various assumptions of ideal bureaucracy. Many authors have questioned the validity of bureaucracy. In most of these cases, either the conditions are not found in practice, or even if found, may not result in efficiency.

Specially the following aspects of bureaucracy work against efficiency of the organisation, though they are supposed to contribute to efficiency:

1. Rules are normally provided for guidelines but often they become source of inefficiency because of too much emphasis on rules, their misuse, and people’s apathy from rules.

2. Rigid organisational hierarchy works against efficiency. It overemphasizes superior- subordinate relationships unnecessarily which is detrimental to congenial organisational climate.

3. In dealing with people, total impersonal approach cannot be adopted because people have feelings, emotions and sentiments which affect decision. Thus, people cannot work totally according to rules and prescriptions.

PA; APPROACHES OF P/ADMINISTRATION

Approaches in Public Administration

July 25, 2010 by blessan

Introduction

The approaches to the study of Public administration can be categorized from many angles such as normative approach and empirical approach. Normative approach concentrates on what public administration should be. Empirical approach sets its eyes on description and analysis of actual administrative Situations. Another classification of approaches is based upon the objects of study the individual scholar seeks to emphasize, such as;

Philosophical approach
Legal approach
Historical approach
Scientific approach
Case Method Approach
Institutional and Structural Approach
Behavioural Approach

Philosophical Approach

The Philosophical approach takes within its purview all aspects of administrative activities. Its goal is to find out and enunciate the principles or ‘ideals’ underlying these activities. This approach is found in Locke’s ‘Treatise on civil Government’, Plato’s ‘Republic’, ‘Hobbes’, ‘Leviathan’, etc. The philosophical approach is perhaps the oldest approach to public administration as of all other social sciences.

Legal Approach

The legal approach is the systematically formulated approach and traces its ancestry to the European tradition of rooting Public administration in law. Public administration was considered to be a part of law, concentrating on legally prescribed structure and organization of Public authorities. This approach was formed at a time when the functions of the state were narrowly limited and simple in nature. The legal or juristic method is mostly used in France, Germany, and Belgium. These countries have a long tradition of administrative law. The administrative law is an important branch of Public law and is conceived in quite broad terms so as to include the organization and functions of public authorities and with the problem of their correlation, powers and responsibilities. Public administration is considered to be a part of administrative law and as such it is studied in the legal framework. In India also the administrative study was mainly preoccupied with the legal foundations of administrative authority and its procedures and was narrower in its scope than that of European continent because there law itself was conceived in broad sociological terms whereas in India, it had a narrow juristic connotation.

Historical Approach

The historical approach to the study of public administration Seeks to recreate a segment of history. It Studies the public administration of the past with a particular time span, organizing and interpreting the information in a Chronological order. This approach naturally commands a powerful attraction in a society having rich past and can be valuable in identifying the uniqueness of the administrative system.

Scientific Approach

Public administration like many other social sciences makes use of the inductive method of proceeding from particular to general through observation for collecting the data, classification of data and verification of the hypotheses. The scientific management movement gave a great fillip to the use of this method in the development of effective techniques of organization and management and of budgeting and supply. Administration was separated from politics. It was treated as a mechanical organization and was subjected to the rigours of laws of mechanics. Although the Study of public administration has now passed off the Stage of scientific management fad, many activities of the office management, accounting and control of material and supply are still determined on the scientific principles. Measurement of work, time and motion studies, work flow charts, cost accounting and opinion sampling and polls are the techniques based on the Scientific and technical method for the solution of administrative problems.

Case Method Approach

A case is a narration of what has actually taken place in administration, keeping in fact the context and all relevant dimensions. Ably, handled, the case method approach is a sensitive one, seeking as it does to reconstruct the administrative realities and gives to students a flavour of the administrative Process. The case approach has been motivated by a commitment to the objectives and methods of social sciences. It has been shaped also by a considerable sensitivity to traditional concerns of humanities and by practical interest in pedagogy as against research. The case method to the study of public administration began to be popularized in the thirties. The case method has come to stay in public administration, but it cannot become the dominant approach. In Public administration, case study is essentially historical method. It is a method in which an administrative decision, in any given question or issue, is made the focal point for historical exposition. Its aim is to point out as to what factors or considerations- political, economical, and personal or any other-influence the decision of the administrator and also to know the process of decision or policy-making. The case as presented to the student in the file on monograph comprises every possible aspect of the situation. It is best presented as a running account embodying explanations of various procedures as they occur in relation to the circumstances. It provides the student with indications concerning the legislative and institutional framework within which the problem to be solved by the administrative agencies arises. It also, wherever possible contains notes to help the analyst understand the psychological back-ground, the characters of the people who took part in the case, the tensions among the staff of the administrative organization concerned, and other factors. The account as a whole is intended to reconstruct and explain, with reference to the greatest number of identifiable factors, the initiation, procedure and conclusion of the operation concerned and more specially, the process of formalizing the administrative decision. The case histories are prepared with the help of relevant documents and files, inquiries and interviews with officers concerned and all other sources of the case. ‘Public Administration and policy Administration’ published by the interuniversity case programme of the United States was a pioneering use of this technique. Following this several national institutes of public administration of various countries have launched their own study programme. Early in the sixties the Indian Institute of Public Administration (I.I.P.A) brought out three books on case studies the I.I.P.A and the National Academy of Administration have prepared about eighty case studies in memography form for their training use. The I.I.P.A recently published four more volumes of its case Studies. Some of the limitations of this that, re-living another person’s life through case studies never succeed. Secondly, the most significant part of a decision is the agony of it; one cannot re-lire the agony anxiety and put himself in another individual’s position.

Institutional and structural Approach

This approach to the study of public administration is the oldest and in point of number, it has the largest following. But it is least homogenous of all schools of public administration as it includes among its protagonists, teachers and research workers with varied training, ranging from political scientist to specialists in scientific management techniques. The common features of this school which distinguishes it from other schools of administrative thought. These features are of follows

The followers of this school took policy administration dichotomy quite seriously. They defined the task of administration as nonpolitical or technical which lay merely in carrying out the will of political authority by either neutral means. They directed all their efforts to discover ‘principles’ of public administration.
The early work of this school is characterized by an empirical and pragmatic approach. Their sole aim was to describe a set of facts and not to build any theories. This view prevails particularly in United States during the period between the two world wars and its greatest exponents were Leonard.D.White and Luther Gulick.

Since the fifties of the last century, there has been a shift in this approach. Although the study has retained its institutional character, yet the policy administration dichotomy has been qualified after being found too hasty. More attention is now being given to the normative aspects of public administration and administration is being viewed as an element in political theory and the accepted political Values. Scholars like John. M. Gaus and Paul Appleby of this school have frankly given up the technical view of public administration and they approach public administration from the broad political standpoint.

Behavioural Approach

This approach examines public administration by studying individual and collective human behavior in administrative situation. It brings to bear upon administrative problems on inter-disciplinary approach which includes Sociology, individual and social psychology and cultural anthropology. Originated in the United States this approach focuses on the actual behavior of persons and groups in organizations and has four Characters which are of follows

The increased attention to the individual and his relationship to the administrative organization in which scientific-management approach tended to consider him rather as a thing or a means, without taking in to account the different aspects of his personality and his relationship to interests and social group other than the administrative organization in which he worked. Increased attention to the individual in administration is based on more realistic research concerning motivation, decision making process and nature of authority.
Administration is studied as a social system with the result that whereas formerly attention was concentrated exclusive on formal and rational relationships of the organization, now informal relationships of men in the organization receive equal attention.
On account of these developments, more importance is given to communication. This is understandable because an administration is described as a complex aggregate of human relations. Under the traditional approaches the only recognized means of communication were the formal orders and circulars issued by the superior to the subordinates and reports and returns submitted by the subordinates to their superiors. But under the new approach, the informal means of contact and communication receive of as much attention as the formal ones.
Replacement of the theory of Sovereignty by that of legitimacy. The concept of political sovereignty had given birth to the theories of hierarchical structure, line of authority, chain of command, delegation and others. Under the new approach, there is an increasing tendency to analyse the reason why given persons, considered individually and collectively, feel that they must obey orders. Thus emphasis is put on administrative leadership and motivation.

In this method a new approach is followed by comparing the behavioral pattern of public administration in different countries, this comparative method has been used in studying the contemporary system of government and administration. The Behavioural science and the case study approach has impacted a distinct shift in the techniques of comparative approach in which the normative study of comparative administration merged gradually into the empirical and explanatory writings on different administrative systems. The recent trend is towards a nomothetic approach whereas earlier it was towards ideographic approach. Ideographic approach showed interest in concrete situations, case studies, area information and particular facts while the present emphasis is on theory or testable propositions which assert regularities of behavior and correlation between variables. The new trend involves a greater interest in the environment factors as they interact with public administration. It is now realized that these factors conditions and are conditioned by governmental behavior and hence their study is an essential part of study of public administration.

The Consensus Approach

The principles of public administration developed at the time were devices suggested to achieve efficiency. This efficiency-oriented approach coupled with the anti- patronage movement was strengthened by the view that policy making and policy implementing are two different things. Policy –determining was considered to be field of politics, and policy-implementation, the field of administration. It is now accepted that administration is involved in policy formulation also. It is now wrong to say that policies can be formulated without the advice or assistance of administrative staff .The whole theory of ‘delegated legislation’ disproved the dichotomy between politics and administration. According to Appleby,” Public administration is policy-making”. It is not autonomous, exclusive or isolated policy-making. It is policy-making on a field where mighty forces contend- forces engendered in any society. Further, public administration cannot be fruitfully studied apart from its political and social setting.

The Structural approach concentrated on the description of the administrative structure of the government bodies. This approach emphasizes the study of PODSCORB techniques of administration. But the administrative structure and techniques cannot be studied without proper reference to the environment in which public administration is working as well as the human factor. According to the scientific management approach, the problems of the public administration should be studied by the methods and spirit of science. Taylor concentrated on the work methods, machines and materials. He was concerned with the questions of mechanical efficiency. Scientific management taking efficiency as the objective, views administration as a technical problem concerned basically with the division of labour and specialization of functions. This approach is considered defective because it ignores the human elements in administration.

The socio-psychological approach or the Behavioural approach believes that public administration should be concerned with the study of human behavior in organization and operations of the various organizations. According to Simon decision making is the most important activity of administration. Human beings who work in an organization have aspirations and desires. Their behavior is conditioned by their psychology, motives and social environment. The administrative science should study these ‘facts’ of behavior without getting involved in the question of ‘values’. This new approach is universalistic in character and its purpose is to build a system of interlocking generalizations about how organizations actually behave in these organizations.

Summary

The approaches to the study of public administration can be summarized as

Public administration was studied from the background of administrative law .The emphasis in this jusrisdical approach is on formal structures both constitutional and administrative. It has been concerned with officers, with duties, limitations, prerogatives and disabilities of officers and with legal, litigation and rights of Citizen.
In the comparative public administration approach stimulated by the United Nations, the emphasis is on understanding the problems of administration operating under different socio –political and cultural settings.
Another approach is to study public administration in relation to political parties and pressure groups.
Historical approach is also a fascinating area of study. Many lessons can be learnt by studying the history of administration.
Institutional approach is to study the structure. It deals with the study of organs of the State.
The Behavioural approach claims to explain administrative processes that are common to many forms of organization. The focus is on human behavior, including Psychology, Sociology and anthropology.

The Post War Trend of Public administration has been:

The assault upon the politics –administration dichotomy
The assault upon the claims to science and to universal principles of administration, and
Sociological studies of bureaucracy.